HYDROLOGIC IMPACTS OF CHINA’S UPPER MEKONG DAMS

ON THE LOWER MEKONG RIVER

Quang M. Nguyen, P.E.

June 28, 2003

MEKONG RIVER AND ITS SUB-BASINS

The Mekong River is one of the largest rivers in the world. It originates from the Tanggula Mountains (1) on the Tibetan Plateau, which is approximately 4,975 meters above mean sea level, and flows approximately 4,880 kilometers (km) through China, Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam and finally discharges into South China Sea. It ranks the twenty first in the world in terms of its drainage area (795,000 square kilometers (km²)), the twelfth in terms of its length, and the eighth in terms of its average discharge (15,000 cubic meters per second (m³/s)) (2).

The Mekong River basin has been divided into two subbasins: the Upper Mekong Basin and the Lower Mekong Basin, probably since the establishment of the Committee for the Coordination of Investigations of the Lower Mekong Basin, the predecessor of the current Mekong River Commission, on 17 September 1957. The Lower Mekong Basin was defined by the Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East (ECAFE) as part of the Mekong River basin downstream of Chiang Saen located near the common Burma-Laos-Thailand boundary point (3). The Lower Mekong Basin covers a drainage area of approximately 606,000 km² or 76 percent of the Mekong River basin. It comprises 97 percent of the area of Laos (202,400 km²), 86 percent of the area of Cambodia (154,730 km²), 36 percent of the area of Thailand (184,200 km²), and 20 percent of the area of Vietnam (the Central Highlands and the delta region) (65,170 km²).

The Upper Mekong Basin includes 24 percent of the Mekong River basin upstream of Chiang Saen, covering a drainage area of 188,460 km²). Except for small portions in Myanmar and Laos, the majority of the Upper Mekong Basin is located within China (Qinghai and Yunnan Provinces) (1).

CHINA’S UPPER MEKONG DAMS AND CONTROVERSY

China plans to build seven cascade hydropower dams on the main stream of the Mekong River in the Upper Mekong Basin (known as the Lancang Jiang in China). These hydropower dams, occasionally referred as the Mekong Cascade, are located in Yunnan Province. The first dam, Manwan Dam, was officially completed in 1996, but its reservoir was filled earlier in the 1992-1993 dry season. Construction of the second dam, Dachaoshan Dam, was started in 1996 and is scheduled to complete in 2003. The third dam, Xiaowan Dam, began construction in 2001 and is expected to complete in 2012. The remaining four dams are in their planning stages, with the Jinghong Dam expected to begin construction in the next few years (5).

Although construction of the first dam was begun in 1986, very limited data and information on the dams, including potential impacts on hydrology and the environment, are available outside China. China said that “... the Mekong dams will benefit downstream countries, by storing water in the rainy season to reduce flooding and releasing it when needed in the dry season...” (6). According to David Jezeph, chief of Water and Mineral Resources at the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), the ECAFE successor, "China could really help control the flow of water into the lower Mekong basin... Its dams - two are built already and they're planning up to six more - could have an impact... The completed dams were too small to have any noticeable affect on the Mekong's level... But the planned 300-metre-high Xiaowan dam, which would hold 10,000 million cubic metres, could help relieve the heavy annual flooding in the lower Mekong basin.” (7) Ian Cample, a senior environment specialist at MRC, indicated that "China's Man Wan dam in Yunnan province does worry the MRC... The dam has certainly had impact on the lower Mekong basin... However, the dams upstream might also have positive impact downstream. China had said the dams would reduce flooding in rainy season and increase the flow in the dry season. They would also prevent sedimentation, which was severe at the lower Mekong basin.” (8)

But other experts, environmentalists, activists, non-profit organizations, and downstream countries in the Lower Mekong Basin are concerned that the China’s Upper Mekong dams will do more harm than good.

“In Cambodia and Vietnam the floods were attributed to exceptional rainfall. There was no mention of mismanagement of hydropower dams in Thailand, Laos, or Vietnam, all of which could and probably did contribute to the high levels of the floodwaters. More to the point there was no mention of the role of Manwan [see picture]. Even though Manwan’s storage capacity is not very great, it had to play a role one way or the other. Did it hold back the floodwaters (thus lessening the flooding that did occur downstream)? Or did it contribute to high water levels in the lower Mekong during the months of September and October 2000?” (9). Specifically, “’In 1997, the Chinese closed down the river for four days to enable work on a dam, thus stopping the flow of large quantities of fresh water into the Mekong Delta,’ revealed Van Beek, a participant at Friday’s panel discussion. ‘The Vietnamese claimed to have lost US$100,000 a day.’” (10)

And dam opponents “... wonder what would happen during a catastrophic drought or flood in China. Would Beijing close its sluices during droughts to preserve water, turning the downstream flow into a trickle? Would it fling open the gates during floods, releasing a wall of water that could literally wash away Thai and Laotian cities?” (11)

Recently, at the Second International Symposium on the Management of Large Rivers for Fisheries- "Sustaining Livelihoods and Biodiversity in the New Millennium," which was held from February 11 to February 14, 2003 in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, those concerns were raised again.

In his address during the opening session of the symposium, Cambodian Prime Minister Samdech Hun Sen said: “As riparian nations, our histories and livelihoods are linked to the ebb and flow of the Mekong. We may suffer from the Mekong's abnormal floods, yet the rich soil it distributes and the fish it nurtures sustain us. Because of our common dependence on its riches, the Mekong River is now under increasing pressure. We see the signs of such stress in erosion, siltation and changes in water currents. Also observed has been some reduction in fishery resources, impediments to river transportation and exceptional flooding.

Coming to this point, may I draw participants' attention to a vital issue regarding the flow regime of the Mekong River. Given that the change of flow regime is a critical factor in the annual flood levels that sustain the region's fisheries, traditional livelihoods and biodiversity, the Upstream countries' projects in the Mekong River, namely the continued dam constructions and commercial navigation plan, have become a major concern for the downstream countries including Cambodia. The possible impacts for Cambodia that many have foreseen are: The Tonle Sap could dry up, ending the famous river fishing industry and causing widespread flooding; and eventually the home of endangered fish would be destroyed. The dry of the Tonle Sap, believe me, will not just affect Cambodia but the whole region. A study to look at the downstream impacts is urgently needed for the sustainability of resources management in the Mekong.” (12)

AVAILABLE INFORMATION AND ANTICIPATED HYDROLOGIC EFFECTS

Early information on the China’s Mekong Cascade was presented at the Developing the Mekong Conference in September 1996 at Monash University, Melbourne, Australia (1). Additional data and information, including potential impacts of the Mekong Cascade on hydrology of the Lower Mekong River, were provided later in a paper “... to publish up-to-date information relating to the seven dams to be built on the lower Lancang Jiang.” (13) In this paper, potential effects of the Lancang Jiang dams on river flow were discussed.

Name	Height (meter)	Gross/Active Storage (billion m^3)	Capacity (MW)	Construction Status
Manwan	126	0.92/0.25	1,500	1986-1993
Dachaoshan	110	0.96/0.37	1,350	1997-2003
Jinghong	118	1.04/0.25	1,500	Planned
Xiaowan	300	14.55/0.99	4,200	2002-2012
Nuozhadu	254	22.7/1.22	5,000	NA
Mengsong		NA	600	NA
Gonguoqiao		0.51/0.12	750	NA
Total		40.68/3.20	14,900

“Under natural conditions, before Manwan Dam was built, the mean dry season discharge near the Yunnan-Laos border (November-April) over the 30 year period 1953-82 was 689m3/sec [cubic meters per second]. In these six months Lancang Jiang flow amounted to 25 per cent of mean annual discharge, indicating the very considerable flow of the river even in the dry season. Completion of Manwan, Dachaoshan and Jinghong dams will of course add to dry season discharge as water is released for power generation, but overall their effect will be negligible, as the Mekong Secretariat recognized in its report Mekong Mainstream Run-Of-River Hydropower (1994: 6-34). On the other hand, the expected completion of the reservoir at Xiaowan before the Year 2010 will have a major effect. Mean discharge from Xiaowan itself November-April is then expected to increase to 968m3/sec. When Nuozhadu is added to the system the mean dry season discharge near the Yunnan-Laos border is estimated to total 1869m3/sec, an increase of 1,180m3/sec or 171 per cent.

The effects of Xiaowan and later Nuozhadu will also be substantial in the high-flow season, May-October. These storages will then be being refilled from the net rainy season inflow. Thus total wet season discharge from the Lancang Jiang into the Mekong could be reduced by as much as 25 per cent , depending on the overall storage situation. Both shifts in river regime will require very careful management as to volumes and timing, to optimize potential benefits downstream (e.g. in irrigation and power generation) and to minimize adverse effects such as the much-publicized potential losses in Lower Mekong fish populations and in reduction of the inflow (July-September) to Tonle Sap.

A further consideration among so many matters for research, planning and discussion in the next decade, certainly before Xiaowan is completed, is the extent to which long-term Mekong discharge appears to be being affected by recent climate change. In their study of fish populations, Hill and Hill (1994) and Hill (1995) demonstrated through trend analysis, using Mekong River Commission data, that a decline in average annual discharge and annual maximum discharge (but not annual minimum discharge) had occurred at Vientiane and in southern Laos, 1970-90. All dams, whether on the Mekong mainstream in Yunnan or on Mekong tributaries in Yunnan, Laos, Thailand and Cambodia are likely to have cumulative effects, reducing rainy season discharge and increasing the volume of low-flows.”

Recently, the potential impacts of Xiaowan Dam (see picture) were presented in an article on the China Daily newspaper (15). Its hydrologic impacts were described as follows:

“Ma Hongqi, chief engineer of the Yunnan Lancang River Hydropower Development Co Ltd, the major developer of these projects, said that Chinese scientists made a comprehensive analysis of the Xiaowan project's potential impacts on the lower reaches of the Mekong River before construction of the dam began this January.

‘We concluded that the Xiaowan project will have limited impacts on the lower reaches of the river,’ said the engineer at the Chinese Academy of Engineering. ‘Instead, the dam project will help with irrigation and navigation in the lower reaches,’ Ma said.

He said that construction of the Xiaowan dam will not decrease the total amount of water reaching the countries in the lower reaches, for it is not a water-diverting project between different drainage systems.

After completion, the Xiaowan dam will create a 15 billion cubic-meter reservoir with an area of more than 190 square kilometers. The reservoir can ease water shortages in the lower Mekong during the dry season which usually lasts from November to May. On average, the water flow to the lower reaches will increase by 39.7 percent.

This will help improve the efficiency of flood diversion projects along the lower Mekong, Ma said. The increased flow of water will help prevent intrusions of saline water from the South China Sea, he said.”

HYDROLOGIC NETWORK FOR THE LOWER MEKONG RIVER

The hydrologic conditions of the Mekong River have been monitored by gaging stations on the main stream and tributaries throughout the basin. These gaging stations were established and operated by individual riparian countries as early as 1920’s. In 1957, many of these gaging stations in the Lower Mekong River were incorporated into a basinwide hydrologic network for a comprehensive data collection program conducted by the Mekong Committee based on recommendations in the Wheeler Report (15). Since the end of the Indochina wars, the hydrologic network has been revived and continued to function. It is now part of the Mekong River Commission’s Water Resources and Hydrology Program.

Currently, the hydrologic network includes 22 major gaging stations on the Lower Mekong River’s mainstream. They are located at Chiang Saen (Thailand); Luang Prabang (Laos); Chiang Khan (Thailand); Vientiane (Laos); Nong Khai (Thailand); Paksane (Laos); Nakhon Phanom (Thailand); Thakhek (Laos); Mukdahan (Thailand); Savanakhet (Laos); Khong Chiam (Thailand); Pakse (Laos); Stung Treng, Kratie, Kompong Cham, Phnom Penh (Bassac), Phnom Penh Port, Koh Khel, Neak Luong, and Prek Kdam (Cambodia); and Tan Chau and Chau Doc (Vietnam) (see picture) (16). Historic data collected by the Mekong Committee program, together with newly collected data; appear to be adequate to evaluate any changes in the hydrologic conditions of the Lower Mekong River, especially after the construction of the Manwan and Xiaowan Dams in the Upper Mekong Basin.

HYDROLOGIC IMPACTS OF THE UPPER MEKONG DAMS

Historic monthly water levels at the Chiang Saen gaging station from 1961 to 2000 were used to evaluate the impacts of the Manwan Dam on the hydrology of the Lower Mekong River under high, low, and average conditions. This water level data is appropriate because the Chiang Saen gaging station is the upstream-most gaging station in the Lower Mekong River and because the records cover long periods before and after the dams were constructed and operated. The construction of the Manwan Dam was started in 1986 and completed in 1993. Although the construction of the Xiaowan Dam was started in 1997, potential impacts are not expected before its scheduled completion in 2003.

Review of the monthly-high water level at the Chiang Saen gaging station does not reveal any significant changes in the monthly-high hydrograph between 1986 and 1991, except for the highest monthly-high water levels of 6.44 m in 1987 and 6.16 m in 1988. These levels were lower than 6.68 m in 1975, the lowest monthly-high water level between 1961 and 1985. These low water levels, however, appear to be affected by low rainfall in the Upper Mekong Basin rather than caused by the construction of the Manwan Dam.

The monthly-high water levels in 1992, however, appear to be affected by the operation of the Manwan Dam probably when the dam was closed to fill its reservoir. The highest monthly-high water level in 1992 reached the record low of 5.42 m.

From 1993 to 2000, the highest monthly-high water levels appear to return to the normal pattern and fluctuated within the historic range before the construction of the Manwan Dam. On the contrary, the lowest monthly-high water levels at the Chiang Saen gaging station appears to be affected by the operation of the Manwan Dam. The lowest monthly-high water levels always remained above 1.00 m and reached the record high of 2.41 m in 2000. Before 1993, the lowest monthly-high water level ranged between 0.54 m (1963) and 1.47 m (1987).

The hydrograph for the monthly-low water level follows the pattern of that for the monthly-high water level. Both the highest and lowest monthly-low water levels reached the record lows of 2.80 m and 0.00 m in 1992 and 1993, respectively, probably because of the closure of the Manwan Dam. The lowest monthly-low water level at the Chiang Saen gaging station, which was well below 1.00 m before 1993, rose beyond that level after 1993 (except in 1994 and 1999) and reached 1.54 m in 2000, probably caused by the operation of the Manwan Dam.

The hydrograph for the monthly-average water level is similar to that for the monthly-high water level. The highest monthly-average water level declined significantly in 1992 due to the closure of the Manwan Dam, and the lowest monthly-average water level frequently rose above 1.00 m since 1993 because of the release from the Manwan Dam during dry seasons.

The operation of the Manwan Dam appears to have considerable impacts on the water levels and discharges at this station during dry seasons from November to April. The average monthly-high dry-season water level increased from 2.05 m (between 1961 and 1993) to 2.73 m (between 1994 and 2000). The average monthly-low dry-season water level increased from 1.22 m (between 1961 and 1993) to 1.79 m (between 1994 and 2000). The average monthly-average dry-season water level increased from 1.54 m (between 1961 and 1993) to 2.16 m (between 1994 and 2000).

These above average water levels were converted into river discharges (flows) using the rating curve for the Chiang Saen gaging station, which was developed from the 2003 data (water levels and flows) posted on the MRC’s website. On the average, the operation of the Manwan Dam has significantly increased the discharge at the Chiang Saen gaging station during the dry seasons. The average monthly-high dry-season discharge increased from 979 m³/sec to 1,490 m³/sec or approximately 52 percent. The average monthly-low dry-season discharge increased from 477 m³/sec to 807 m³/sec or approximately 69 percent. The average monthly-average dry-season discharge increased from 654 m³/sec to 1,055 m³/sec or approximately 61 percent.

The water levels and discharges at the Chiang Saen gaging station during wet seasons from May to October have also changed after the Manwan Dam was placed into service in 1993, but the impacts of the operation of the Manwan Dam on these changes could not be specified because of a lack of data. The increased discharges, however, were likely caused by higher rainfall in the Upper Mekong Basin during the record periods. The average monthly-high wet-season water level increased from 5.52 m (between 1961 and 1993) to 6.20 m (between 1994 and 2000). The average monthly-low wet-season water level increased from 3.05 m (between 1961 and 1993) to 3.62 m (between 1994 and 2000). The average monthly-average wet-season water level increased from 4.07 m (between 1961 and 1993) to 4.76 m (between 1994 and 2000).

The average monthly-high wet-season discharge was estimated to increase from 4,444 m³/sec to 5,356 m³/sec or approximately 20 percent. The average monthly-low wet-season discharge increased from 1,761 m³/sec to 2,288 m³/sec or approximately 30 percent. The average monthly-average wet-season discharge increased from 2,744 m³/sec to 3,511 m³/sec or approximately 28 percent.

The hydrologic impacts of the construction and operation of the Manwan Dam on the water levels and discharges at the Chiang Saen gaging station have not been observed at Chau Doc, one of the downstream-most gaging stations of the Lower Mekong River’s hydrologic network. The other gaging station is located at Tan Chau. The hydrographs for the monthly-high, low, and average water levels at the Chau Doc gaging station since 1981 do not show any unusual patterns in 1992 and 1993 as shown on the hydrographs at the Chiang Saen gaging station. The water levels at the Tan Chau and Chau Doc gaging stations reached the lowest levels since 1981 in 1997, but this low condition does not appear to be related with the hydrologic conditions in the Upper Mekong Basin. In fact, the water levels at the Chiang Saen gaging stations appear to be normal in 1997.

The hydrographs for the maximum and minimum annual water levels at the Chiang Saen, Tan Chau, and Chau Doc gaging stations confirm that the hydrologic conditions at the Tan Chau and Chau Doc gaging stations (downstream) and the Chiang Saen gaging station (upstream) do not appear to correlate with each other. For example, the highest maximum annual water level at the Chiang Saen gaging station occurred in 1966, while the highest maximum annual water level at the Tan Chau and Chau Doc gaging stations occurred in 1961. The lowest maximum annual water level at the Chiang Saen gaging station occurred in 1992, while the lowest maximum annual water level at the Tan Chau and Chau Doc gaging stations occurred in 1998. Similarly, the lowest minimum water level at the Chiang Saen gaging station occurred in 1993, while the lowest minimum annual water level at the Tan Chau and Chau Doc gaging stations occurred in 1987 and 1983, respectively. In fact, linear regressions performed for the maximum and minimum annual water levels at the Chiang Saen and Tan Chau gaging stations resulted in a correlation coefficient of 0.46 for the maximum annual water level and 0.12 for the minimum annual water level. The correlation is considered perfect if the coefficient is equal to 1.00.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The Mekong River, one of the largest rivers in the world, flows through China, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia before discharging into South China Sea in the Vietnam’s Mekong Delta. The Mekong River Basin has been divided into two subbasins: the Upper Mekong Basin and the Lower Mekong Basin. The Upper Mekong Basin includes 24 percent of the Mekong River basin upstream of Chiang Saen, Thailand including small portions in Myanmar and Laos and portions of Qinghai and Yunnan Provinces in China. The Lower Mekong Basin covers approximately 606,000 km² including 97 percent of Laos, 86 percent of Cambodia, 36 percent of Thailand, and 20 percent of Vietnam.

China plans to build seven cascade hydropower dams on the Mekong River main stream in Yunnan Province. The first dam, Manwan Dam, was officially completed in 1996, but its reservoir was filled earlier in the 1992-1993 dry season. Construction of the second dam, Dachaoshan Dam, was started in 1996 and is scheduled to complete in 2003. The third dam, Xiaowan Dam, began construction in 2001 and is expected to complete in 2012. The remaining four dams are in the planning stages, with the Jinghong Dam expected to begin construction in the next few years.

Although construction of the Manwan Dam was begun in 1986, very limited data and information on the dams, including potential impacts on hydrology and the environment, are available outside China. China said the Mekong dams would benefit downstream countries, by storing water in the rainy season to reduce flooding and releasing it when needed in the dry season. They indicated that the completion of the Manwan, Dachaoshan and Jinghong dams would add to dry season discharge as water is released for power generation, but overall their effect would be negligible. They also indicated that the completion of the Xiaowan Dam would increase the average river flow to the Lower Mekong River by 39.7 percent.

ESCAP and MRC officials agreed. They said that the completed dams were too small to have any noticeable affect on the Mekong's level and that the dams upstream might also have positive impacts downstream. But other experts, environmentalists, activists, non-profit organizations, and downstream countries in the Lower Mekong Basin are concerned that the China’s Upper Mekong dams will do more harm than good.

Historic data from 1961 to 2000 indicate that the completion and operation of the Manwan Dam has had significant impacts on the hydrologic conditions, i.e. water levels and river flows, at the Chiang Saen gaging station, the gate to the Lower Mekong Basin. The closure of the Manwan Dam probably set record lows for the monthly-high and monthly-low levels at the Chiang Saen gaging station in 1992 and 1993, respectively.

The river discharge during dry seasons (November-April) at the Chiang Saen gaging station has increased significantly since the completion of the Manwan Dam in 1993. The average monthly-high dry-season discharge increased from 979 m³/sec to 1,490 m³/sec or approximately 52 percent. The average monthly-low dry-season discharge increased from 477 m³/sec to 807 m³/sec or approximately 69 percent. The average monthly-average dry-season discharge increased from 654 m³/sec to 1,055 m³/sec or approximately 61 percent.

The river discharge during wet seasons (May-October) at the Chiang Saen gaging station has also increased since 1993. The average monthly-high wet-season discharge was estimated to increase from 4,444 m³/sec to 5,356 m³/sec or approximately 20 percent. The average monthly-low wet-season discharge increased from 1,761 m³/sec to 2,288 m³/sec or approximately 30 percent. The average monthly-average wet-season discharge increased from 2,744 m³/sec to 3,511 m³/sec or approximately 28 percent. The increased wet-season discharges, however, were likely caused by higher rainfall in the Upper Mekong Basin during the record periods.

The hydrologic impacts of the construction and operation of Manwan Dam on the hydrologic conditions at the Chiang Saen gaging station have not been observed at Chau Doc and Tan Chau, the downstream-most gaging stations of the Lower Mekong River’s hydrologic network. This observation is consistent with a very weak correlation between the water levels at the Chiang Saen and Tan Chau gaging stations. The linear regressions performed for the maximum and minimum annual water levels at the Chiang Saen and Tan Chau gaging stations resulted in a correlation coefficient of 0.46 for the maximum annual water level and 0.12 for the minimum annual water level. The correlation is considered perfect if the coefficient is equal to 1.00.

This paper did not evaluate the extent, i.e. the distance from the Chiang Saen gaging station, of the hydrologic impacts of the Manwan Dam on the Mekong River at the downstream gaging stations, nor the hydrologic impacts of the completion and operation of the Dachaoshan Dam due to limited hydrologic data. The extent of the hydrologic impacts of the Manwan Dam and the hydrologic impacts of the completion and operation of the Dachaoshan Dam, however, may be evaluated when hydrologic data at the downstream gaging stations become available. Similar analyses may be performed to evaluate hydrologic impacts of future China’s Upper Mekong dams.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I would like to acknowledge and greatly thank Mr. Tinh N. Dang of the Mekong River Commission’s Secretariat in assisting me to obtain crucial hydrologic data for this evaluation.

REFERENCES

(1) Liu Shisong. 1997. “Economic Cooperation and Development in the Lancang-Mekong River Subregion.” Developing the Mekong Subregion, Edited by Bob Stensholt. Monash University: Clayton, Australia.

(2) Mekong River Commission. “Mekong River Commission Secretariat Database and Information System.” http://www.inbo-news.org/ag2000/BU-1.htm

(3) Committee for the Coordination of Investigations of the Lower Mekong Basin. 1972. Report on Indicative Basin Plan. United Nations: Bangkok, Thailand.

(4) Mekong River Commission. October 2001. MRC Hydropower Development Strategy. Mekong River Commission Secretariat. Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

(5) International Rivers Network. October 2002. “China’s Upper Mekong Dams Endanger Millions Downstream.” Briefing Paper 3. Berkeley, California.

(6) Michael Richardson. October 30, 2002. “Sharing the Mekong: an Asian challenge.” The International Herald Tribune. http://www.iht.com

(7) Dominic Whiting. August 7, 2001. “China dams could help Laos fight floods.” Reuters News Service. Bangkok, Thailand.

(8) Piyaporn Hawiset. November 16, 2002. “Mekong River Commission's Middleman Role Attacked.” http://www.geocities.com/vlado_stastny

(9) Tyson Roberts. 2001. “Downstream ecological implications of China’s Lancang Hydropower and Mekong Navigation projects.” http://www.irn.org/programs/lancang

(10) Marwaan Macan-Markar. March 26, 2002. “Mekong River’s development may flow into conflict.” Online Asia Times. http://www.atimes.com

(11) Ron Moreau, Richard Ernsberger Jr., and Kevin Platt. March 19, 2001. “Strangling the Mekong.” Newsweek, Atlantic Edition. Beijing, China.

(12) Hun Sen. February 11, 2003. Address to the Second International Symposium on the Management of Large Rivers for Fisheries- "Sustaining Livelihoods and Biodiversity in the New Millennium." Phnom Penh, Cambodia. http://www.mrcmekong.org/news_events

(13) E.C. Chapman and He Daming. 1996. “Downstream Implications of China’s Dams on the Lancang Jiang (Upper Mekong) and their Potential Significance for Greater Regional Cooperation, Basin-Wide.” http://www.anu.edu.au/asianstudies/mekong/dams.html

(14) China Daily. September 16, 2002. “Xiaowan Dam, a Reservoir in Progress.”

http://www.china.org.cn/english/environment/42990.htm

(15) United Nations. 1958. Program for Studies and Investigations for Comprehensive Development Lower Mekong Basin. United Nations. Bangkok, Thailand.

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